AYYUBID

The Ayyubids rose to power when Salah al-Din (Saladin) took control of Egypt in 1169. Turkish in origin, Saladin’s father, Ayyub, and uncle, Shirkuh, served Zangid [i] sultan, Nur al-Din, as Mamluk [ii] soldiers and governors of Damascus. When the Franks attacked the Shi’i Fatimids [iii] in Egypt, Saladin and Shirkuh [iv] were sent to lead allied forces. Shirkuh was appointed vizier [v] of Egypt, but died soon after. Saladin inherited the role and proclaimed himself the rightful heir to Damascus when Nur al-Din died in 1174. In the Shi’i caliphate’s demise and upon retaking Jerusalem, Saladin established himself as the sole leader of the Sunni jihad.

Many of the Ayyubids’ military enemies were also their economic allies. In addition to his controversial control of Jerusalem after the Third Crusade, Saladin's empire contained key Mediterranean and Dead Sea ports [vi] in Egypt, Palestine and Yemen. European forces, such as the Franks and the Latin Church, traded with the Ayyubids but led frequent attempts to conquer their ports, with mixed success. After the failure of the Third Crusade [vii], Pope Innocent III launched the Fifth Crusade [viii] to retake Jerusalem from the Ayyubids by slowly weakening their economic base in North Africa and the Nile River Valley, though it was ultimately unsuccessful.

Salah al-Din restored the Haram al-Sharif [ix] (also known as the Temple Mount) in Jerusalem. He ushered in a new era of diplomacy between the Middle East and Europe. The Ayyubids were active traders on the Silk Road. Goods like spices, silk and cotton moved along the Silk Road from China and India; sales made to European traders went through a group of elite Muslim middlemen called the Karimi [x]. Ayyubid art was another valuable commodity, and innovative styles from this period—silver and brass inlaid metallurgy, enameled glass, luster-glazed ceramics and carved wooden tableaus [xi]—remain iconic across the Middle East and North Africa today.

Despite the sultan’s absolute power, the Ayyubid Empire was effectively a confederation of semi-autonomous feudal territories [xii]. In keeping with Fatimid tradition, Saladin maintained a three-tiered system [xiii] of governors, officers and infantrymen who enforced the law and carried out a long series of military campaigns. Though cultural and religious assimilation to Sunni Islam [xiv] was the dynasty’s proclaimed mission, this was somewhat thwarted by the ethnic diversity of the empire [xv]. Local populations were often unreceptive to Ayyubid authority and social cohesion was limited. Each feudal city-state was run by a select number of Saladin's family members and trusted military officers to ensure loyalty [xvi].

Saladin’s military and government were one and the same [xvii], largely due to the controversial nature of his rise to power. Saladin [xviii] died in 1193, just a few years after conquering Jerusalem. Factionalism rose among the feudal leaders of his empire, and a slow but steady loss of cohesion ensued. Saladin’s brother, al-Adil [xix], and nephew, al-Kamil [xx], ruled during the Fifth [xxi] and Sixth Crusades [xxii]; ultimately, they were unable to maintain the political and religious unity of the empire. In 1250, Ayyubid rule came to an end when the sultanate’s Mamluk [xxiii] generals staged a military coup, as Saladin himself had done 80 years prior.

In 1187, Saladin's army won the Battle of Hittin against the occupying Christian forces [xxiv] and reverted Jerusalem back to Muslim control. The Ayyubids were prolific military strategists and patrons of architecture [xxv], fortifying and beautifying the cities of Cairo and Damascus. The women of the sultanate [xxvi] erected some of the most well-known Levantine architecture of the Middle Ages, including the Madrasa al-Sahiba in Damascus. In their ultimate mission to strengthen cultural and religious devotion to Sunni Islam, these madrasas were established in Egypt, Syria, and Jerusalem [xxvii]. In addition to religious education, these schools were also centers of science, literature, and mathematical studies.

Situated in a strategic position on both the Mediterranean and Red Seas, the Ayyubids dominated both maritime and overland trade routes [xxviii]. Though the Ayyubids controlled some of the most arable land in Egypt and the Levant, agriculture alone was unable to sustain their economy. Trade along the Silk Road, as well as heavy industry, were equally paramount. With Saladin’s dedication to high military spending, his empire was frequently trapped in a cycle of economic boom and bust. Several times before his death, the threat of bankruptcy [xxix] caused the Ayyubid dinar to be devalued, also leading to a gold shortage in Egypt [xxx].