BABYLONIA

After the Assyrian Empire’s [i] withdrawal from southern Mesopotamia in the 19th century BCE, the region came under the control of the Amorites [ii], a Semitic-speaking people from modern-day Syria [iii]. Under Hammurabi’s leadership, the Amorites concentrated power in the ancient administrative center of Babylon [iv], issued a modern legal-code, and waged war on the neighboring empires of Assyria and Elam. The great Babylonian Empire rapidly disintegrated after Hammurabi’s death, but Babylonia would retain a distinct cultural and political tradition as it became host to the Kassite and Isin Dynasties [v] before being re-conquered by the Assyrians in the 12th century BCE.

Throughout most of its existence, Babylonia (under its various dynasties) [vi] existed in a near constant state of competition with the neighboring empires: the Elamite Empire [vii] and the Assyrian Empire. Though conflict between the Assyrian Empire and Babylonia ebbed following the rise of the Kassite Dynasty, rivalry with Elam remained consistently intense. It reached its zenith during the Bronze Age collapse with the subsequent sackings of Babylon [viii] - by Elam - in the 12th century, and Susa—at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar I—about 100 years later. The Assyrian Empire eventually absorbed Babylonia after it disintegrated under the 2nd Isin Dynasty between the 12th and 10th centuries BCE.

The codification of law [ix] under Hammurabi was instrumental to early Babylonian success in southern Mesopotamia, as it portrayed an explicit framework for retributive justice throughout the nascent kingdom. The code would become a model for other legal systems [x] throughout the region, and likely served as inspiration for Hebrew scribes in Canaan during the codification of Hebraic law in the Book of Exodus. Babylonian advances in science, astronomy, and medicine would also reverberate across the region. In conjunction with other work throughout early Mesopotamia, Babylonian astronomical calculations and systems of prognosis and diagnosis [xi] would later influence thinkers during the Islamic Golden Age.

Babylonia was ruled as a theocratic monarchy [xii] for most of its early history. Hammurabi aggressively consolidated power in lower Mesopotamia by conquering surrounding city-states and forcing their governments into vassalage. Hammurabi instituted his legal code [xiii] under the assumption of divine inspiration from the sun-god, Shamash, of the early Babylonian pantheon. Though the code’s publication did afford rights and protections to the underclass of the empire, Hammurabi himself achieved his success by centralizing power in his rule and deploying a disciplined army against his neighbors. Under the Kassites, this system of monarchic rule continued as Babylonia sputtered on as a diminished kingdom.

Babylonia consolidated under Hammurabi in the 18th century BCE following the withdrawal of the Assyrian Empire [xiv] from southern Mesopotamia. The Old Babylonian Empire [xv] collapsed shortly after Hammurabi’s death, but at the height of its dominance, the empire nearly stretched to modern Turkey along the Euphrates. Under the Kassites, Babylonian influence shrank to a handful of city-states around the capital. Babylonia was briefly resurgent under the second Isin Dynasty, successfully sacking the Elam capital of Susa in the 11th century, but it fell to Assyria shortly after. Babylonia would not regain independence until the Chaldeans [xvi] founded the Neo-Babylonian Empire 500 years later.

Babylonian civilization made great strides in mathematics, astronomy, literature, and law [xvii]. Mathematicians developed the first positional number system enabling quadratic calculations for parabolic motion and highly accurate modeling [xviii] of the night sky. The literacy rate in Babylon skyrocketed under Hammurabi, leading to the transcription of the Epic of Gilgamesh [xix] along with other Sumerian mythology. The Hammurabi code [xx] provided a model for impartial retributive justice which informed and influenced widespread legal systems for thousands of years. These achievements were made possible by the construction and administration of the most populous city of the ancient world [xxi], surpassing 200,000 people at its peak.

The Babylonian civilization’s economy was fueled by extensive trade [xxii] with city-states to the west of the Euphrates. Like most Mesopotamian states, this trade was based in the large agricultural surpluses [xxiii] that Babylonian farmers had achieved along the fertile crescent. During his rule, Hammurabi bolstered agricultural productivity with the development of intensive irrigation projects which allowed for increased westward trade. These projects and surpluses also catalyzed rapid urbanization of the Babylonian population which made Babylon the largest metropolis in the ancient world and allowed for the emergence of a skilled artisan class which produced a myriad of art, literature, and luxury goods.