MACEDONIA

The successes of Alexander's rapid conquests would also be his downfall [i]. With the Persian Empire conquered, his soldiers started to question why they needed to keep fighting. They followed him to India, where Alexander continued to display military brilliance. However, they did not share Alexander's lust for conquest. Without conquests keeping him busy, Alexander focused on making his empire more stable. However, further improvements were cut short in 323 BCE upon his death. The effects of Alexander's death were immediate [ii]. His generals and governors began fighting over the empire, and with no clear heir in place, Macedonia split into rival factions.

The Macedonians were fierce, among other things, because they had competitive neighbors: the Thracians and the Illyrians [iii]. Its strategic position between Europe and Asia placed the Macedonian Empire in a warlike terrain and involved the territory in many conflicts. In fact, it was in the Peloponnesian Wars that the empire first began to emerge. On the other hand, they had a vast cultural life with goldsmithing, and ivory carvings sourced from Athens [iv]. Athens had no option but to be a peaceful ally of Macedonia, as each party was given a guarantee of their conquered territories and a defensive alliance was established.

While Alexander used the Persian infrastructure, he sought to spread Macedonian culture across the world. Alexander supported Persian and Egyptian priests and sponsored the building of temples. But he also built new cities with Hellenistic architecture and spread Macedonian philosophy and ideas through new educational institutions. He also integrated the local culture and traditions of those communities he conquered. Some, in the eastern part of the empire, even converted to Buddhism. Over in India, Macedonians became a part of the caste system. Though Alexander's empire did not outlast him, the effects of the Hellenistic religion, lifestyle, and culture endured for centuries [v].

Macedonia was the first large territorial state [vi] with an effective centralized political, military, and administrative structure on the European Continent. Alexander`s empire did not have a true capital city, and all conquered territories depended directly on the king. However, as expansion increased and large conquests were made, several distinct forms of government emerged: there were regions administered by royal satraps, which were governed in an indirect way, as well as autonomous cities. Thus, this complex Empire was governed by principles centralized in Alexander as a person himself, helped by his most direct collaborators, adopting some titles from the Persians too.

Phillip II created a federation of Greek states and dreamed of conquering the Persian Empire but was assassinated in 336 BCE. His son, Alexander the Great took the throne after his father’s assassination. In one long military campaign that lasted 11 years, Alexander conquered the Persian Empire [vii], making Macedonia the largest, most powerful empire in the world at that time. Alexander’s Empire spanned from Greece to India. Alexander died in 323 BCE, and given that he had no direct heirs, the Macedonian Empire crumbled quickly following his death. Military generals then divided up the Macedonian territory [viii] in a series of civil wars.

The cities that Alexander founded became important intersections of new and old trade networks [ix] connecting Asia to the Mediterranean. Alexander the Great conquered most of the known world at the time, inaugurating the Hellenistic Period of Greek history. Alexander’s expeditions brought advances in geography and natural sciences and helped shift the major centers of civilization eastward. His greatest contribution was spreading Hellenistic culture from Gibraltar to the Punjab [x] Macedonian language and coinage were common links across these vast trading and cultural networks. Alexander’s achievements helped pave the way for the rise of the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity, and the Byzantine rule.

The city of Alexandria became an important trade center [xi] connecting networks that extended from the Mediterranean through the Middle East and into India. Exports included grains, cotton, fruits, and vegetables. From the eastern section of the empire, goods ranging from metals, spices, and animals were traded with nearby lands. Alexander's conquest of Persia also further opened the floodgates for the expansion of trade. For centuries, Persia had hoarded gold from its conquered lands. Alexander, however, turned the gold and silver into coinage. This spending pumped huge amounts of money into the economy [xii], making some elites very rich and further stimulating trade.