MONGOL

The Mongol Empire was founded in 1206 [i], when Gengis Khan was declared Great Khan after subduing all nearby tribes in northeastern Asia. He then embarked on a campaign that brought large swaths of central Asia under his control by his death in 1227. The Empire began to fracture after his death and finally broke into four parts; the Yuan Empire [ii], the Golden Horde [iii], the Chagatai Khanate [iv], and the Ilkhanate [v]. Despite the quick collapse of a unified empire, Mongol successor states would dominate Eurasia for centuries. The last successor, the Kazakh Khanate [vi], would only be absorbed by the Russian Empire in 1848.

The Mongols were adept at diplomacy as well. As the Empire pushed into the modern day Middle East, the Mongols concluded several alliances with Christian nations, who were involved in warfare against Muslim nations there at the time. A Franco-Mongol alliance [vii] was attempted, due to common enemies in the region, however nothing came of it. More successful was an alliance with the Byzantine Empire [viii], who were attempting to reestablish their empire in the decades after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. The two empires cooperated in fighting mutual enemies in Anatolia and modern day Iraq until the alliance finally broke down [ix].

While in Mongolia, Gengis Khan is a national hero and is revered, he is understandably demonized in most other countries due to the widespread destruction of his conquests. To much of the world, there is little positive about the Mongol Empire [x]. The Mongol conquests altered local conditions everywhere. In Russia, the Kievan Rus [xi] would decline as a state, while the small town of Moscow would rapidly grow. In China, the Yuan dynasty would begin a flourishing of Chinese culture, as the first major foreign dynasty would bring a wave of foreign ideas and culture that would mix with traditional Chinese culture.

Prior to being united under Gengis Khan, Mongols were divided into various tribal confederations that frequently warred with each other. These tribes generally elected their chieftains, and once united, this practice of electing a monarch continued [xii]. Although the practice of electing a monarch never fully died out, the monarchy quickly became a de-facto hereditary system, with Gengis’ descendants ruling. The empire was subdivided into smaller Khanates, originally ruled by Gengis’ sons. In theory, they were loyal to the Great Khan. In practice, these semi autonomous kingdoms allowed their rulers great freedom and set the stage for the fragmentation of the empire.

The area around Mongolia and Manchuria had been inhabited by various warring nomadic tribes that would intermittently unite and threaten the Chinese lands to the south for centuries. The Chinese exerted great effort to keep the “northern barbarians” out of China, including the construction of the Great Wall. The Khanates that arose after the Mongol Empire had collapsed played an important role in the politics of the region for centuries after. Long after the Mongol Empire had broken up, descendants of Gengis Khan would continue his legacy, with both the Timurid Empire [xiii] and the Mughal Empire [xiv] being founded by his descendants.

During its brief existence, the Mongol Empire became one of the largest empires to exist, only being surpassed by the British Empire [xv]. By uniting the whole of Eurasia, the Mongol Empire was able to encourage the flourishing of trade and the exchange of ideas across the continent. In China, the Yuan dynasty would see a flourishing of Chinese culture. The dynasty was the largest in China up to this time, and united the whole of China. This encouraged cultural exchanges, not only within China, but also from East to West. Major Chinese inventions such as gunpowder were spread by the Mongols.

Trade was an important lifeblood of the Empire. By uniting the whole of the Eurasian steppes, the Mongol Empire greatly facilitated the increase in trade across the continent. This trade would ultimately encourage a wave of maritime exploration from Europe. Trade contacts were made in Europe and flourished in the Middle East. Paper money [xvi] was introduced in the empire which allowed for an increase in economic activity. While the Mongols themselves were nomadic herders, a tradition continued by ethnic Mongols, the empire ruled through tribute. Sedentary populations mostly continued their lifestyles as they were before the Mongols arrived in the area.