OMANI

Fleeing floods in Yemen [i], the al-Azad tribe formed the roots of the Omani civilization in 532 CE; along with the Arabs, Phoenicians [ii], Chaldeans [iii], Sabaeans [iv], and Persians already living in the area [v]. Arab Omanis successfully overthrew Persian regional domination, inviting more tribes to relocate to Oman before peacefully converting to Islam. In 1651 the empire ended the Portuguese presence in Oman and notably expanded into the Swahili coast, bolstering the empire with a Zanzibar settlement used for slave trade and clove production [vi]. However, the Sultan’s death in 1856 ended the empire by splitting the East African Coast and Oman between his sons.

Finding a mutual enemy in the Portuguese, Omanis initially came to their Swahili trading partners aid in 1640 by providing liberation before establishing themselves as conquerors [vii]. The Omani Empire’s reliance on slavery for clove production caused Sultan Seyyid Said to pit African tribes against each other while withstanding European objections to its slave trade. In 1837 the Sultan ousted his Kenyan rivals, the Mazrui family, which consolidated his power [viii]. Establishing commercial treaties with America, Britain, and France helped equip his military while diplomatically counterbalancing their disapproval [ix]. Britain's naval intervention in 1873 and control of Zanzibar in 1890 finally ended regional slavery.

Separated by the Al Hajar mountain range, Oman developed in quasi-isolation which preserved many of the empire’s traditions like the Omani dhow (boat) now a symbol of national pride [xviii]. Positioned not only for success as a maritime empire, today the Sultanate of Oman is situated as an important geopolitical actor [xix]. Similarly, Ibadism’s focus on egalitarianism is positioned to influence the Sultanate’s foreign policy of mediation. However, its legacy of migration on the Swahili coast ended abruptly in 1964 with the overthrow of Zanzibar’s sultan, an Omani descendent, resulting in the murder of thousands of Omani Arabs and their sudden mass exodus [xx].

Conversion to Islam put Oman under the Umayyad [x] Caliphate and then the Ibāḍī imamate in 749 CE [xi]. However, the imamates’ tendency towards hereditary dynasties did not mix with Oman’s seclusion and maritime tradition, resulting in its decline [xii]. Occupation by the Persians and Portuguese gave way to dynasties such as the secular Al ´Bu Sa`id Dynasty in 1789. However, the Ottomans and eventually the British occupied the empire before it regained its independence [xiii]. Oman’s monarchical system is a continuation of Sayyid Sa'id bin Sultan’s intermittent dynasty. Currently, the Sultan rules with input from the semi-elected Consultative Assembly and Council of State [xiv].

Before adopting Islam, populations in present-day Oman followed Hinduism, Christianity, and gods associated with celestial bodies [xxiv]. Some evidence of their early-pastoral lifestyles remains while Persian control of the coastal areas pre-dates the 6th century BCE. From 100 to 800 CE, Arab tribes migrated through modern Yemen and the North into Oman. After electing the first Ibadi imam in 750 CE, Oman became independent from the Baghdad-based Abbasid caliphate [xxv]. While most of Omanis today are Arabs, the region’s history [xxvi] of slavery and migration has created a diverse population of ethnic Balochis, Lurs, Persians, Mehri, South-Asian Lawatis, and people of Black African origin [xxvii].

Oman is considered the oldest independent state in the Arab world. Their vast maritime empire successfully competed with the Portuguese and British empires in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean [xv]. Reaching its zenith in the 19th century, the Omani empire stretched to modern-day Iran [xvi], Pakistan, and Cape Delgado. Omanis adhered to the Ibadi school of Islam which predates the Sunni and Shia schools but relies on the texts of both aiding the empire’s regional relationships [xvii]. Notably, it maintained cohesion between its Arab and African parts, established itself in the international arena, and also built a prosperous clove industry and naval force.

Oman’s expansive exploration reached China by the 8th century, which interlinked the empire with vast networks of trade such as the Swahili coast-- a lucrative conduit for trade between the African interior and Indian Ocean [xxi]. These trade networks were disrupted by Portuguese and Omani occupation but revived in the 18th century due to the slave trade, ivory demand, and an infusion of capital from India [xxii]. Enriching Omani sultans, the slave trade accelerated in 1812 with the demand for cloves and spices which flourished on plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba [xxiii]. Meanwhile, commercial treaties with foreign powers deepened its trade and maritime networks.