PHOENICIA

Despite a certain degree of divergence in theories [i], it seems that around the 3000 BCE, late-Bronze Age Semitic populations of the Levant gave impetus to the development of prosperous city-states. These included Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre in the land known as Canaan [ii], located in present-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel. Given the inability to rely solely on agriculture to survive [iii], the Phoenicians thrived as merchants of refined luxury goods, as well as sea explorers. Starting from 900 BCE, the Phoenician city-states fell prey to the domination of more powerful populations [iv], and ultimately surrendered to Alexander the Great’s army in 322 BCE.

The Phoenicians flourished in a narrow strip of land surrounded by mighty neighbors including the Egyptians [v] and the Assyrian Empire [vi]. However, thanks to the build-up of a ramified trading network [vii] and the high quality of the empire’s traded goods, the Phoenicians were spared by the great military powers and managed to remain autonomous until 900 BCE. In their maritime expansion, the Phoenicians experienced a fierce rivalry with the Greeks [viii], who controlled the maritime routes in the Aegean Sea and aspired to dominate the Mediterranean. In this sense, the Phoenicians became trusted allies of the Persians in their military advances against Greece.

Certainly, we owe a lot to the Phoenicians for the way we navigate the seas and the language we use today. As expert seafarers [ix], the Phoenician people developed key nautical inventions such as the keel and the anchor. Moreover, lacking navigational instruments, they were the first to master the study of both the stars and the tides to move in the open sea. Nevertheless, the most important legacy of the Phoenician comes from their writing system and alphabet [x]. The Greek alphabet [xi], which is the root of the Latin alphabet, also originated from the adoption of the Phoenician Empire’s own original alphabet.

The Phoenicians did not constitute a nation in the strict political sense, rather they were divided into loosely organized city-states. Although these entities shared a common culture and language, they were independent in both domestic and foreign affairs, and sometimes even rivals. Internally, the governments of Phoenician city-states [xii] were held by hereditary monarchs with absolute powers. During the 6th century BCE, the annals of Tyre reported a brief period in which the city-state was ruled by two judges called suffetes and a Senate. This rather different political system was later adopted by Carthage, whose constitutional order was openly praised by Aristotle [xiii].

The scarcity of historical accounts on the Phoenicians has been compensated by the finding of expansive archeological information [xiv]. Phoenician city states began to take form around 3200 BCE, and by 2750 BCE the city of Tyre was founded. The civilization of maritime traders and expert craftsmen flourished in the period between 1500-322 BCE, especially when they took advantage of the sudden fall of several major empires including the Egyptians. Beginning in 900 BCE, Phoenician city states were subject to the domination of Eastern conquerors [xv] until their ultimate demise via Alexander the Great began at the siege of Tyre in 334 BCE.

Given the narrowness of their native land, the Phoenicians were pushed to focus on the sea, and became some of the greatest seafarers of ancient times. They mastered several nautical inventions that were influential for the centuries to come. They also sailed past the Strait of Gibraltar, around Western Africa, and even reached the shores of Southwestern England. Under their colonizing impetus, several modern European cities were founded such as Malaga, Marseille, and Cadiz. Great success was also achieved by the Phoenicians in craftsmanship and glass manufacturing. Perhaps their most notable contribution of all was the formulation of the phonetic alphabet [xvi].

Constrained by geographical elements that made the cultivable land very marginal, the Phoenicians still managed to prosper thanks to their ability to construct a wide network of trading routes across the Mediterranean; often acting as intermediaries between different civilizations [xvii]. The Phoenicians’ trademark was the ‘Tyrian purple’, a purple dye obtained from the processing of sea snails, from which the name ‘Phoenicians’ originated. Gradually, Phoenician city-states also became key centers of manufacturing. Hence, the maritime routes were importing raw materials while exporting refined goods, such as woodworking, glass manufacturing, and wine, as well as luxury items such as dyed clothes, and fine-jewelry.