RASHIDUN

The question of succession after the Prophet’s death divided the community between those who favored allegiance to successors from the Prophet’s lineage, particularly Ali, and those who believed that political leaders should be selected based on capability. Ultimately, it was Abu Bakr, the Prophet’s father-in-law, that was elected. Although hugely successful in their conquests, the Rashidun were marred by conflict, and the internal strife that occurred during Uthman and Ali’s tenure led to their demise. The first Muslim Civil War (The First Fitna) [i] provoked the assassination of Ali in 661 CE, allowing the Umayyad [ii] clan to infiltrate and overthrow the caliphate.

Unification of the Arabian tribes and nation had been at the forefront of Prophet Mohammed’s mission, and the Ridda Wars (Wars of Apostasy) [iii] whereby Abu Bakr launched a series of military campaigns against renegade tribes plotting insurgencies, fulfilled this mission. Bordering two superpowers, the Byzantine Empire [iv] to the North West, and the Sasanian Empire [v] to the North East, the caliphs of the Rashidun pursued conquests of both [vi], resulting in the conquering of the Levant, Egypt, and Persia. Years of warfare had weakened both regional powers, and their subsequent attempts to regain conquered land were consistently intercepted by the Rashidun Muslim armies.

The modern Islamic schism between Sunni and Shi’i ideology [vii] stems from the succession debate between opposing camps after the Prophet’s death. The Shi’i narrative stipulates that the legitimate successors must be descended from the Prophet’s lineage; thus only recognizing Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of the Prophet, as a true successor. Sunni’s oppose political succession based solely on bloodline, and therefore consider all successive caliphs as rightful leaders. Revered as exemplary Muslims, Sunni’s seek to emulate each caliph’s piety and character. Although the division began as opposing political groups, it eventually evolved into the religious sects [viii] present in modern-day Islam.

The caliphate innovated the ruling structure in Arabia and incorporated many elements of democracy [ix]. Medina was the capital of the empire and the seat of the caliph, whilst the Mosque of the Prophet was set up as the house of Parliament. Each caliph was appointed by a council of elders, known as the ‘Shura’ [x], who advised the caliph throughout his tenure, and caliphs required a bay’ah (oath of allegiance) from their subjects. Provinces in conquered lands were formalised and governors were assigned to said provinces. An independent judiciary system was established [xi], and justice was delivered according to the principles of Islam.

From inception to demise, the caliphate endured for 29 years and laid the foundation for a succession of Islamic dynasties i.e. Umayyad, Abbasid [xii] and Ottoman [xiii], which prevailed until the early 1920’s. Although the caliphate’s achievements are often overshadowed by successive dynasties, Islam’s fundamental identity was formed during this period, and religious scholarship was introduced. The rapid expansion into other lands meant that Arab culture intermingled with indigenous cultures of the conquered people, resulting in the Arabic language becoming a vehicle for the transmission of high culture [xiv]. This high culture status motivated many conquered peoples to convert to the Islamic faith.

Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman expanded the Rashidun Empire militarily and caused the implosion of the two prevailing regional empires: the Sassanid Persian Empire completely collapsed, and the Byzantine Empire receded greatly. Muslims held dominion over all of the Levant, Syria, Iraq, Khorasan, Egypt, a portion of the North African strip, and some Mediterranean islands by 656 CE. The codification & preservation of the Islamic holy book, the Qur’an [xv], was completed during Abu Bakr’s tenure, as prior to this Qur’anic verse was memorised and passed down verbally. Similarly, the Islamic calendar [xvi] was created during Umar’s reign, and Muslims maintain its use today.

The empire drew earnings from multiple sources, with the ‘Bayt al mal’ (office of revenue) responsible for state revenue. The empire’s citizens were classified into two categories– Muslim and non-Muslim (Dhimmi). The foundation of the empire’s economy was raised from the collection of Zakaat, a social welfare tax due upon Muslim citizens [xvii] in possession of sufficient resources. Zakaat was used as an equitable redistribution of wealth. Kharaj (land tax) and Jiziya (capitation tax) [xviii] were collected from Dhimmi citizens. The kharaj tax allowed them to keep their properties and livelihoods, while the Jiziya tax compensated for their exemption from compulsory military duty.