SELEUCID

The Seleucid Empire arose from a victorious battle at Gaza [i] against the Macedonian Empire in 312 BCE. With forceful military expansion, Seleucus expanded his control over Babylonia [ii], which sparked the empire’s inception. The merging of Greek and Macedonian societies led the Seleucid Empire to break into autonomous regions. While the empire was accepting of the multicultural blend, it could not prevent the individual provinces’ desire for independence. By the middle of the third century, many provinces seceded and Romans overtook the vast territory east of the Euphrates. Eventually, in 64 BCE, the Romans conquered [iii] the remainder of the exhausted Seleucid Empire.

The Seleucid Empire’s rivals arose throughout the empire’s establishment. After the death of Alexander the Great, no specific successor to the throne was named [iv]. This power vacuum led to the division of the territory between the top five generals, who battled for centuries over contentious frontiers. However, the Mauryan Empire became a strategic ally to Selecus, and provided war elephants for use in battle [v] in light of a mutually beneficial marriage arrangement between the Seleucus and Mauryan Dynasties. As the Romans quickly expanded eastward, they became the archrivals of the Seleucid Empire [vi], as both empires sought to dominate the Mediterranean region.

The Hellenistic world [vii], which encompassed Alexander the Great’s conquests in the Middle East, was a combination of Greek aristocratic ideals and language with Arab culture. This meshing of customs persisted from the Seleucid Empire’s time and continues today; particularly in the domains of literature and gastronomy. Greek aristocracies’ language was so influential that a significant amount of medical terminology in today’s Modern Standard Arabic language is in fact derived from Latin. Additionally, many culinary delicacies found in Middle Eastern countries have Byzantine roots, such as Moussaka [viii], a nutritious eggplant casserole, which dates back to the Hellenistic culture of the Seleucid Empire.

The Seleucid Empire practiced provincial rule [ix], which focused on decentralized administration and centralized government. This allowed the empire to avoid an aggregation of power. Between 223-187 BCE, Antiochus II [x] implemented modern administrative reforms which eliminated the dual power rivalry that existed between the military and political bureaucrats. The king assumed the highest power, yet took counsel from his advisors, who would administer his decrees to secretaries [xi], and then disseminate information to regional governors called Satraps. This division of power and respect for provincial autonomy was said to have allowed for an encouraging blend of both Middle Eastern values and Hellenistic culture [xii]

As seemingly harmonious and accepting of cultural differences as the Seleucid Empire was, it was not spared the inevitable fate that persisted throughout the provinces; desire for self determination from each of the unique regions [xiii]. This was further demonstrated when Antiochus IV persecuted the Jews, igniting what is known as the Maccabean uprising in 165 BCE [xiv]. After a quarter-century of resistance between the Jews and the Seleucid Empire, the dispute was put to rest with the creation of an independent Judea in Palestine. Their independence marked the start of the empire’s eventual disintegration, and sparked further secession movements [xv] across the region.

Given the constant blending of cultures and information, Greek philosophy and science rapidly infiltrated the Seleucid Empire. In the second century BCE, Seleucus of Seleucia [xvi], a staunch supporter of Aristarchus’ heliocentric theory [xvii], affirmed that the movements of ocean tides are directly influenced by the position of the moon. This monumental discovery helped facilitate prominent water trading routes. As the Seleucids used modern technology and science to dominate in land battle and trade [xviii], they also overthrew two key cities, Antioch, now Antakya in Turkey, and Seleucia in modern day Baghdad [xix]. This provided direct access to the Tigris and further strengthened the empire.

The Seleucid Empire controlled the Taurus Mountain range and the Hellespont [xx], a strait which connected Thrace and Anatolia and enabled access to trading routes. Dry farming [xxi] along the Mediterranean also yielded in-demand crops such as olives. In dry areas, underground water channels were constructed to [xxii] bring water in from the Tigris and Euphrates. These factors allowed the Seleucid Empire to become well-connected and provided an economic boost.The busy waterways also led to the emergence of the Cilician pirates [xxiii]. The coalition of pirates forged a strategic partnership with Antiochus VI Dionysius [xxiv], who used the pirates to traffic slaves into the empire.